Sharp on Science & Industry

Compare the Scientific Revolution (1540-1700) with the Industrial Revolution (1750s-1850)

I. Scientific Revolution

• Questioned & challenged the concepts and beliefs about nature and the external world from the Middle Ages. Became more secular, rational, & materialistic
• Astronomy
o Copernicus: rejected Ptolemaic universe & argued for heliocentric
o Kepler: 3 laws of planetary motion orbits of the planets are elliptical, speed of a planet is greater when it’s closer to the sun, and planets with larger orbits revolve slower
o Galileo: proponent of heliocentric system. Observed universe was made of similar substance to earth. Discovered the principle of inertia
o Newton: invented the calculus. Famous book Principia. Discovered the Universal law of Gravitiation. Created the idea of Newton’s world machine.
• Medicine
o Paracelsus: treatment with chemicals and like cures like
o Vesalius: argued for hands on research
o William Harvey: discovered the heart was the center of blood circulation
• Rationalism Descartes: a believer in rational, mathematical, and mechanical thinking and reasoning. Discourse On Method. Cartesian Dualism the duality of the mind and body
• The Scientific Method Newton synthesized Bacon’s empiricism with Descartes’ rationalism into the scientific method which began with systematic observations, which were used to arrive at general concepts

II. Industrial Revolution

• Began in Britain around 1750 & spread to the European continent, eventually making Great Britain the wealthiest country in the world
• Factors agricultural revolution, GB had capital, central bank, willing investors, ample resources, willing government, and foreign markets in the empire
• Technological Changes
o The Cotton Industry:development of the flying shuttle, spinning jenny, water frame spinning machine, mule, and power loom all made the cotton industry more efficient
o The Steam Engine: Newcomen engine & the Watt’s engine were first steam engines, which were soon applied to the cotton industry in factories & other mills
o The Iron Industry: Development of the puddling system created cheaper and better iron
o The Railroad: The development of the steam engine led to the steam powered locomotive. Railroads created demand for iron and coal, investors, job opportunities, and facilitated lowered prices on goods.
o The Industrial Factory: Became the chief means of organizing labor. Regular hours, fast paced, low pay, bad working environments, harsh discipline
• Social Impact Population growth, which led to dire poverty, famines, and mass emigrations. Growth of cities.

Johnstone on Medieval v. Industrial Social Orders

Compare the social orders of the Renaissance period, pre-industrial
Europe of the 18th century, and industrializing Europe of the 19th
century.
(pg. 306+307; 513-518; 570+571)

I. Introduction

Thesis: The social order of the Renaissance era derived from the
tradition of the Middle Ages with, specific categories of existence, the
three estates. Pre-industrial Europe witnessed the division amongst the
clusters for the nobility now included those with wealth along with
those of bloodlines and the peasantry integrated free laborers with serfs.
The Industrial Revolution introduced an entrepreneur middle class
almost on par with the nobility as the distance from the lower class
increased.

Social order of Renaissance period

a. Renaissance inherited social order from Middle Ages
i. 3 Estates: clergy, nobility and peasants
b. Nobility
i. 2-3%
ii. Expense of maintaining noble status was rising
iii. Old nobility survived and new nobility grew
iv. served as military officers and politicians
v. Castiglione's The Book of the Courtier: fundamental handbook for
European aristocrats (native endowments, participation in military
activities and certain code of conduct)
1. aim of perfect noble is to serve his prince in an effective and
honest way
c. Peasants and Townspeople
i. 85-90%
ii. continuing elimination of serfdom
iii. multitude of townspeople separated economically and socially
1. patricians: wealth allowed them to dominate social community >
shopkeepers/artisans/guild masters: provide goods for consumption >
propertyless workers > unemployed
iv. urban poverty increased dramatically in cities
d. Slavery
i. Declined in Early Middle Ages and rose again in Italy during the
Renaissance
ii. In Italy, slaves were used as skilled workers or nursemaids;
obtained from eastern Mediterranean and black sea region
iii. Slave trade declined again during 1600’s because of the expenses
(less slave markers open to Italians after conquering by Turks)
III. Social order of pre-industrial Europe of 18th century
a. Social status determined by division into traditional estates
classified by heredity (supported by Christian teaching)
b. Nobility
i. 2-3%; dominating role in society
ii. Legal privileges such as judgment by peers, immunity from severe
punishment, exemption from forms of taxation
iii. Lived off estates but weren’t opposed to mercantile endeavors
iv. Tradition stated that nobles were best and most natural officers >
many had military posts
v. e. EUR used serfs; w.EUR leased land to tenant farmers
vi. large gap amongst nobles as far as money was concerned (money vs.
bloodlines)
c. Peasants
i. 85% (especially because society was largely rural)
ii. Peasants in GB, FR, n.IT, SP and w.GER were legally free
iii. Small peasant proprietors in w.EUR, even being physically free,
weren't able to escape from tithes (1/3 of crops) and other fees
iv. In e.EUR serfs were bound to the lord's estate and had to ask
permission for everything including marriage/moving
v. Local villages = center of social lives yet mostly dominated by
wealthy peasants

Social order of industrializing Europe of 19th century

a. Middle class
i. Industrial middle class was trying to condense the gap between them
and nobles and create distance between them and laboring class
ii. Entrepreneurs > wealthy played important role alongside traditional
landed elites of society
iii. Industrial revolution began at a time when preindustrial agrarian
world was dominated by landed nobles
iv. Wealthiest entrepreneurs merge with old elites
b. Working class
i. Largest group of urban workers = artisans/craftspeople: disliked
industrialization for it promoted factories (guilds vs. factories: quality
or efficiency?)
ii. Servants formed a large class of workers; dependant on upper and
middle class employers
iii. Industrial proletariat soon formed out of factory workers;
horrible conditions in factories

Wilson on Post War Depression

I. Introduction.

A. (Similar) The post-war worlds of 1919-1939 and 1945-1970
1. Economic conditions were similar
2. Governments in distress
3. Redrawing boundaries
B. (Contrast) post-war worlds
1. World War I
a. a seemed period of agreed peace
2. World War Two
b. immediate decline- Cold War/ Berlin Blockade

Thesis: During the post-war periods countries had to deal with similar economic and political issues. The countries had to get back on their feet after the depression of war. There was, however, dispute between former allies in the post World War Two decades that was not as prevalent in the post world war one decades.

II. Post World War 1 Era

A. Economically
1. War debts
2, Great Depression
B. Politically
1. Treaty of Versailles- the treaty that ended the war
a. caused bitter resentment, especially the war guilt clause.
b. emergence of new states
c. League of Nations which was ultimately a failure.
2. Within the countries themselves- emergence of Democratic states
a. Great Britain
1. Lost many markets to the U.S. i.e. coal and steel
2. High unemployment
3. Labour Party ahead of the Liberals then conservatives took over
4.Labour government again John Maynard Keynes
b. France
1. Strongest power
2. Conservative government
3. Hard-line policy toward Germany demands for German Reparations-Ruhr invasion
4. Popular Front movement during Great Depression
5. Political decline approaching 1938
c. US
1. Great Depression
2. Roosevelt/New Deal
3. Social reforms
4. High unemployment
3. Decline to Totalitarianism
a. Italy
1. Mussolini
2. Fascism
b. Germany
1. Weimar Republic unable to handle post war issues
2. Hitler
3. Nazism perfect race anti-semitism
4 unhappy with Versailles Treaty leads to war
c. Cultural movements
1. Dadaism
2. Surrealism
3. New mass culture
4. Unconscious
5. Uncertainty Principle

III. Post-War (WWII) Similarly had to deal with economic problems, leads to democratic welfare states, bitterness at the end of the war terms which led to another war (cold war)

A. Democratic Welfare States

a. Great Britain
1.Labour Party
2. Welfare social reforms
3. Collapse of empire
4. Link with the post world war I era
b. France
1. De Gaulle -reestablish French nation
2. Rising economy
3. Nuclear status
4. Similarities- one of the better off nations again after the war
c. West Germany and Italy new democratic states
B. Rise of Communism again
1. Soviet Union
2. China and asia
C. Disappointment with treaties caused issues between U.S. and U.S.S.R.
1. Yalta
a. United Naitons
2. Potsdam
3. Creation of West and East Germany
4. NATO
D. Cultural movements
1. Feminism
2. Civil rights
3. Permissive society

IV. Contrasts

A. United Nations v. NATO

B. Desire for Peace after WWI Kellogg Brand Pact Spirit of Locarno

C. Rise of the permissive society after wwii feminist movement civil rights etc.

D. Betrayal of allies -U.S.S.R.

McCune on Expansion & Imperialism

Compare the Western expansion of the 15th and 16th centuries with the period of Western imperialism and colonialism (1880s-1914).

In Brief:

The Western Expansion of the 15th and 16th centuries is what historians often refer to as the Golden Age of Exploration. Beginning with Columbus’ “discovery” of the West Indies in 1492, and buffered by subsequent exploration of the New World, European expansion began on an unprecedented level. European powers including Russia, jockeyed for supremacy in the Caribbean and throughout the Americas.

The period of Western imperialism and colonialism (1880’s-1914) marks the second great age of European expansion. With most of their new world territories lost or liberated, Europe turned to Asia and Africa for new colonies, economic ports and strategic military outposts. Africa was completely divided up by European powers and exploited for the good of the motherland. Asia was often more discreetly controlled, and influence was frequently substituted for direct rule.

Thesis:

Europe’s appetite for expansion and strategic world position was championed from the dawn of Western expansion (the 15th and 16th centuries) through the period of Western imperialism (1880’s – 1914). While the two periods of colonialism were marked by shared economic and military purposes, they were clearly separated by different motivating factors and means of rule. Ultimately, Europe’s movements of expansion were both highly comparable, and distinctly separated.

Overview:

• The Western Expansion of the 15th and 16th centuries is what historians often refer to as the Golden Age of Exploration.
• Initiated with Columbus in 1492, followed by Portuguese, French, Dutch Exploration and Colonization.
• The period of Western imperialism and colonialism (1880’s-1914) marks the second great age of European expansion
• With most of their new world territories lost or liberated, Europe turned to Asia and Africa for new colonies, economic ports and strategic military outposts.
• Africa was completely divided up by European powers and exploited for the good
  of the motherland. Asia was often more discreetly controlled, and influence was
  frequently substituted for direct rule.

Compare:

• Motivated by extension of European rivalry and desire for hegemony
  Inspired primarily by desire to improve economic systems, and to instill military footholds abroad.
• Both the early and late periods of expansion sought to continue the European balance of power. If one country developed too large a colonial outpost, war might begin. (E.G. Seven Years War, French & Indian)
• Both periods had agricultural benefits and created new markets for the homeland. (called the Columbian Expansion in 15th/16th century colonialism)
• Both featured general employment of the conquered native people as a work force for the colonial powers (though certain places, E.G. the American Colonies proved poor for such exploitation.)

Contrast

• Early phase motivated by Mercantilist theory, late phase motivated by notion of “White Man’s Burden”
• Early phase was followed by enormous exodus of European colonialists to the better life of a new world, late phase was hardly a mass exodus, and the distant locales of conquered territories were thought of as backwards countries with little future to offer.
• The Age of Imperialism featured a shift in venue; Asia and Africa replaced the liberated former colonies of the Americas.
• The period of settlement, expansion of colonization was notably different: Early European settlement took over a century to reach full fruition/ Later European Imperialism was viciously effective and equally short-lived (approx. 30 years 1880-1914)
• Later expansion substituted influence for direct rule (China split into ‘spheres of influence’)

Compare the Western expansion of the 15th and 16th centuries with the period of Western imperialism and colonialism (1880s-1914).

In Brief:

The Western Expansion of the 15th and 16th centuries is what historians often refer to as the Golden Age of Exploration. Beginning with Columbus’ “discovery” of the West Indies in 1492, and buffered by subsequent exploration of the New World, European expansion began on an unprecedented level. European powers including Russia, jockeyed for supremacy in the Caribbean and throughout the Americas.

The period of Western imperialism and colonialism (1880’s-1914) marks the second great age of European expansion. With most of their new world territories lost or liberated, Europe turned to Asia and Africa for new colonies, economic ports and strategic military outposts. Africa was completely divided up by European powers and exploited for the good of the motherland. Asia was often more discreetly controlled, and influence was frequently substituted for direct rule.

Thesis:

Europe’s appetite for expansion and strategic world position was championed from the dawn of Western expansion (the 15th and 16th centuries) through the period of Western imperialism (1880’s – 1914). While the two periods of colonialism were marked by shared economic and military purposes, they were clearly separated by different motivating factors and means of rule. Ultimately, Europe’s movements of expansion were both highly comparable, and distinctly separated.

Overview:

• The Western Expansion of the 15th and 16th centuries is what historians often refer to as the Golden Age of Exploration.
• Initiated with Columbus in 1492, followed by Portuguese, French, Dutch Exploration and Colonization.
• The period of Western imperialism and colonialism (1880’s-1914) marks the second great age of European expansion
• With most of their new world territories lost or liberated, Europe turned to Asia and Africa for new colonies, economic ports and strategic military outposts.
• Africa was completely divided up by European powers and exploited for the good
  of the motherland. Asia was often more discreetly controlled, and influence was
  frequently substituted for direct rule.

Compare:

• Motivated by extension of European rivalry and desire for hegemony
  Inspired primarily by desire to improve economic systems, and to instill military footholds abroad.
• Both the early and late periods of expansion sought to continue the European balance of power. If one country developed too large a colonial outpost, war might begin. (E.G. Seven Years War, French & Indian)
• Both periods had agricultural benefits and created new markets for the homeland. (called the Columbian Expansion in 15th/16th century colonialism)
• Both featured general employment of the conquered native people as a work force for the colonial powers (though certain places, E.G. the American Colonies proved poor for such exploitation.)

Contrast

• Early phase motivated by Mercantilist theory, late phase motivated by notion of “White Man’s Burden”
• Early phase was followed by enormous exodus of European colonialists to the better life of a new world, late phase was hardly a mass exodus, and the distant locales of conquered territories were thought of as backwards countries with little future to offer.
• The Age of Imperialism featured a shift in venue; Asia and Africa replaced the liberated former colonies of the Americas.
• The period of settlement, expansion of colonization was notably different: Early European settlement took over a century to reach full fruition/ Later European Imperialism was viciously effective and equally short-lived (approx. 30 years 1880-1914)
• Later expansion substituted influence for direct rule (China split into ‘spheres of influence’)

Curren on Economic History

Compare the world economy of the 16th century and that of the period 1871 – 1914.

The 16th century world would have been unfathomable to those who lived in the period from 1871 to 1914; however, these ages are united by their progressive economies.

Thesis: The alternative novelty and inventions during these times sparked the invigoration that led to increased globalization and a world economy that, though not without their economic problems, boasted an ultimately upward trend.

Novelty and inventions in the 16th century:-

The commercial expansion of the sixteenth century was made easier by new forms of commercial organization, especially the joint-stock trading company.
Joint-Stock trading company
• Individuals bought shares in a company and received dividends on their investment while a board of directors ran the company and made the important business decisions
• The joint-stock company made it easier to raise large amounts of capital for world trading ventures
- Enormous profits were also being made in shipbuilding and in mining and metallurgy, where technological innovations, such as the use of pumps and new methods of extracting metals from ores, proved highly successful
Mercantilism
• The belief that the total volume of trade was unchangeable
• The prosperity of a nation depended on a plentiful supply of bullion (gold and silver)
• It was desirable to achieve a favorable balance of trade in which good exported were of greater value than those imported
• Belief that state intervention in some aspects of the economy was desirable for the sake of the national good
Novelty and inventions from 1871 to 1914:
- In the Second Industrial Revolution, steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum led the way to new industrial frontiers
• Substitution of steel for iron
• New methods of rolling and shaping steel made it useful in the construction of lighter, smaller, and faster machines and engines, as well as railways, ships, and armaments
• Electricity was a major new form of energy that proved to be of great value since it could be easily converted into other forms of energy
• Spawned invention of light bulb, telephone, radio, and electric railway
• The development of the internal combustion engine gave rise to the automobile and the airplane
• The desire to own material possessions created a anew consumer ethic that became a crucial part of the modern economy

Increased globalization and a world economy in the 16th century:

- Overseas trade and Colonies: Movement toward Globalization
• With the development of colonies and trading posts in the Americas and the East, Europeans embarked on an adventure in international commerce
• What made transoceanic trade rewarding was not the volume but the value of its goods
• Indies: pepper and spices
• West India and Brazil: sugar
• Asia: coffee and tea
• All becoming readily available to European consumers
Increased globalization and a world economy from 1871 to 1914
- The economic developments of the late nineteenth century, combined with the transportation revolution that saw the growth of marine transport and railroads, also fostered a true world economy
• Foreign countries provided markets for the surplus manufactured goods of Europe; with its capital, industries, and military might, Europe dominated the world economy by the end of the nineteenth century
• Argentina and Australia: beef and wool
• Brazil: coffee
• Chile: nitrates
• Algeria: iron ore
• Java: sugar

Economic setbacks in the 16th century-

Inflation was a major economic problem in the sixteenth century
Inflation
• Price-revolution
• Phenomenon throughout Europe
• Relatively low 2-3%, yet noticeable in a Europe accustomed to stable prices
• As a result of the price-revolution, wages failed to keep up with price increases
• Standard of living dropped for workers
• Landed aristocrats prospered by raising rents
• Some historians regard profit inflation as a valuable stimulus to investment and the growth of capitalism > economic expansion and prosperity of sixteenth century
• Despite inflation, economy of this time was ultimately on an upward trend
Economic setbacks from 1871-1914
- The Second Industrial Revolution played a role in the emergence of basic economic patterns that have characterized much of modern European economic life
• Age of material prosperity
• Yet, recessions and crises were still very much a part of economic life
• 1873-1895, Europeans experienced a series of economic crises
• Prices, especially of agricultural products, fell dramatically
• Slumps in the business cycle reduced profits
• However, from 1895 until WWI, Europe overall experienced an economic boom: la belle époque, a golden age in European civilization

Lanz on French vs. Russian Revolution

Compare the French Revolution (1789-1799) and the Russian Revolution (1917-1924).

Intro

Thesis: Although the French Revolution gave way to much reform among ancient social systems, Royalist control still dominated. However, on the Russian scheme of revolution, they maintained their revolutionary ideals but at the expense of a communist control. Both countries were able to stress revolutionary ideals, but in the end, were controlled by a tyrannical force.

II. Paragraph 1-French Revolution

A. Causes and Problems
1. Discontent with old Regime
a. Criticism from Enlightened society of first classes (First/Second estates) having all control over gov
b. Third estate discontent with having to pay taxes/feudal obligations
c. Poor state of country
d. Legal system corrupt-no codified laws/standards
e. Economic problems stemmed from assertion of rising middle class from new industrial centers
f. Intellectual movements toward opposition (Locke, Rousseau, Montesquieu)
2. Financial Mismanagement
a. Public debt from
i. Colonial wars with England (1778-1783)
ii. French action in U.S.Revolutionary War
iii. Maintenance of large military
iv. Costs at Versailles
b. Inability to secure loans
c. Inflation (1730-1780s)
d. Lack of organization in taxation led to inefficient collectivization of funds
e. No cooperation among government
B. Government Actions
1. Estates General
a. Met in May 1789
b. Each estate given own representation
c. Each made lists of grievances
d. Third Estate upset over voting methods (per unit, not per capita) and refused
C. Societal Actions
1. National Assembly (1789-1791)
a. Third Estate declared itself National Assembly of France
b. Tennis Court Oath-met at court b/c were locked out of parliament and swore to come up with a constitution for France
c. Recognition of Assembly by Louis XIV June 27, 1789

d. Parisian Revolution
i. July 14, 1789-storming on Bastille in search of weapons
ii. Upset with royal power (food shortages, unemployment, etc)
e. Abolished feudalism/declare equality for all citizens
i. Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens (Aug. 26 1789)-due process of law/sovereignty for all
f. Secularized religion
i. Civil Constitution of Religion ?creation of national church (elections/salaries)
g. Governmental reform
i. Divided country into 83 depts. Governed by elected officials
h. Constitutional changes
i. France=constitutional monarchy w/ unicameral Legislative Assembly, voting. Etc.
2. Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)
a. Reflected emergence of political factions who were competing for power
i. Jacobins (radical urban)
ii. Girondins (moderate rural)
iii. Sans-Culottes (working-class extreme radical)
b. Over War question
i. War against monarchy to solve domestic problems
ii. Declaration of war on Austria (1792)
iii. Legislative Assembly not prepared, lost
c. suspended 1791 constitution
d. ordered new elections on universal male suffrage
e. France=republican form of govn
3. National Convention (1792-1795)
a. Abolished monarchy
b. Installed republicanism
c. Louis XIV executed (Jan 21, 1793)
d. English/Spain/Austria/Prussia opposed Revolution
e. Struggle among Girondins vs. Jacobins
f. Committee of Public Safety (Robespierre)
i. Responded to food shortages/planned economy
ii. Urged France for total war against enemies
g. Reign of Terror (1793-1794)
i. Government campaign against internal counterrevolutionaries
ii. deChristianization of France
h. Robespierre denounced, killed (1794)
i. Thermidorian Reaction
i. Moderate bourgeois politicians take control
4. Directory (1795-1799)
a. 5 member executive group
b. Constitution of 1795
c. Sans-Culotte control, failed
d. Napoleon conspired to return to Royalist power in France-move toward Consulate Era

III. Paragraph 2-Russian Revolution

A. Causes and Problems
1. Problems of the Government
a. Incompetent tsar: Nicholas II
i. Assumed personal control of the army during WWI
ii. Left empress wife and Rasputin (her supposed advisor? in charge (didn't know what they were doing)
iii. Abdicated-March 14, 1917
iv. Collapse of gov
2. Military
a. Russian draft increased
b. Only able to supply weapons to a few
c. Inconsistent goals among military leaders
d. Inadequate communication/maps
e. Morale down
3. Economy
a. Agriculture production down
b. Food shortage
c. Collapse of transportation system
d. Encumbered trade deficit of 2.5 billion dollars
B. Societal Action
1. February/March Revolution (1917)
a. Riots/strikes
i. Food riots
ii. Discontent over government handling of war
2. Formation of the Provisional Government after tsar abdication (March-Nov. 1917)
a. Made up of members of the Duma (Russian Parliament)
b. Existed only to facilitate to the writing of the constitution for the new Russian Republic
3. Formation of Soviet groups
a. Russian socialist revolutionaries
i. Mensheviks
a. Insisted that Russia had to go through historical stages?before reaching an ideal socialist society
b. Believed that a bourgeois revolution was necessary before a socialist revolution
ii. Petrograd Soviets
a. Caused collapse of discipline in armed forces
iii. Bolsheviks
a. Split Mensheviks
b. (Lenin) insisted that small revolutionaries could seize power for the working class
c. April Theses insisted Soviets control gov while war should be revolution against capitalism (Became the Communist Party)
d. Wanted factories/banks/land to be nationalized
C. Other Actions by Provisional Gov
1. Remained in WWI
a. Provisional Govn thought that renewed war effort would inspire Russian support
2. Didn redistribute estates to peasants
a. Annoyed peasants seized estates
3. July Crises
a. Mount an offensive force on Eastern Front to counter French mutinies on Western Front
b. Kornilov (Conservative leader) Affair
i. Tries to end Bolshevik power with Cossack force
c. Kerensky (Petrograd Soviet) tries to rebuild support for the Provisional gov'n
D. Bolshevik/October/November Revolution (1917)
1. Fall of 1917-largest Soviet party
2. Trotsky/Lenin (leaders) took over positions in Petrograd, Russia
a. Little violence in initial takeover
b. Violence as a form of maintaining power
3. Allied with Germany
4. Signed Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
a. Remove Russia from war (1917)

E. Communist Reign
1. Goal to solidify control over Russia
2. Opposition by White Forces
a. Monarchists, republicans, British/American contigents
b. Creation of a Civil War in Russia
3. Red Terror
a. Lenin/Trotsky retaliation of opposition
b. By 1920-established rule over Russia (creation of total Soviet Union)
c. Third International-aid cause of revolutions
i. Cominterm-rise of this revolutionary body
ii. Maintained Soviet Union
d. New Economic Policy
1921-rebellion by sailors over war communism replaced with this new policy
ii. Economy made quick recovery
4. 1924-rise of Socialist STATE
a. Question on who should lead: Lenin/Trotsky?

Macdonald on Elizabeth, Stalin, & Frederick the Great

Compare Elizabeth I (England), Frederick the Great (Prussia), and Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union)

I. Elizabeth I

a. Assumed thrown after death of half-sister Queen Mary in 1558
b. During her reign: England rose to prominence, laid foundations for a world empire, and experienced cultural renaissance
c. Intelligent, cautious, and self-confident
i. She moved quickly to solve difficult religious problem
d. Her religious policy based on moderation and compromise
i. Elizabethan religious settlement in 1559
ii. Act of Supremacy designated Elizabeth as “the only supreme governor of this realm, as well in all spiritual or ecclesiastical things or causes.”
iii. Protestantism
e. Smothered religious differences in England
i. Catholics and Puritans opposed this
ii. Elizabeth’s challenge with cousin Mary, queen of Scots
1. Mary next in line to throne and attempted to kill Elizabeth
2. Mary eventually was beheaded
f. Elizabeth just as adept in gov. and foreign affairs as in religious affairs
i. Handled Parliament with much skill
ii. Only met 13 times during her entire reign
iii. She encouraged English piracy and wanted to weaken France and Spain
1. She avoided alliances

II. Frederick the Great

a. One of best educated and most cultured monarchs in 18th century
i. Well versed in Enlightenment thought
ii. Believer in the king as “first servant of the state”
iii. Diligence in overseeing operations of state made Prussia known for its efficiency and honesty
b. Established single code of laws
i. Eliminated use of torture
ii. Granted a limited freedom of speech and press
iii. Complete religious toleration
c. Made Prussian society even more aristocratic than it had been before
i. Reserved the higher positions in bureaucracy for members of nobility
d. Took great interest in military affairs
i. Enlarged Prussian army
ii. Seized the Austrian province of Silesia
1. This act embroiled him in two major wars
e. By the end of his reign, Prussia was recognized as a great European power

III. Joseph Stalin

a. 1879-1953
b. Totalitarian state
c. Favored “socialism in one country” rather than world revolution
d. By 1929, Stalin has succeeded in eliminating the Old Bolsheviks and establishing a powerful dictatorship
e. Time he ruled called the Stalinist era
i. Marked beginning of an economic, social and political revolution
ii. 1928—he launched his first five-year plan
1. Transforming Soviet Union from an agricultural country into an industrial state
2. Millions of workers lived in pitiful conditions
3. Real wages in industry declined by 43%
4. Strict laws limited workers’ freedom of movement
f. Collectivization of agriculture
i. Goal was to eliminate private farms and push people into collective farms
ii. Created famines and death of many workers
g. His desire for sole control
i. Stalinist bloodbath
ii. Dramatic decrease in birthrate

Dorment on Humanisim & Totalitarianism

Compare the ideas of humanism and civic humanism of the Renaissance with the totalitarian ideologies of the 20th century.

Humanism, an important idea during the Renaissance, focused on the importance of reason and knowledge for self-improvement. It stressed that through education, in the sources of classical, and especially Christian, antiquity, they could instill a true inner piety or an inward religious feeling that would bring about a reform of the church and the society. Totalitarianism displayed that a state characterized by government control over all aspects of economic, social, political, cultural, and intellectual life, the subordination of the individual to the state, and insistence that the masses by actively involved in the regime's goals. In Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, humanism was demonstrated through educational policy, reform programs, and rhetorical training.

Humanism - and intellectual movement in Renaissance Italy based
upon the study of Greek and Roman classics.

Civic Humanism - an intellectual movement of the Italian Renaissance that saw Cicero, who was both an intellectual and a statesman, as the ideal and held that humanists should be involved in government and use their rhetorical training in the service of the state.

Humanism Goals
A. Most important characteristic of northern humanism is a reform program.
i. Belief in the ability of human beings to reason and improve themselves
ii. Through education, in the sources of classical, and especially Christian, antiquity, they could instill a true inner piety or an inward religious feeling that would bring about reform of the church and the society.
B. Strong feeling that through certain programs of humanism the necessary changes in society could be made.

Totalitarian Ideologies
A. Totalitarian state - a state characterized by government control over all aspects of economic, social, political, cultural, and intellectual life, the subordination of the individual to the state, and insistence that the masses by actively involved in the regime's goals.
i. Led by a single leader and a single party
ii. Ruthlessly rejected the liberal ideal of limited government power and constitutional guarantees of individual freedoms.
iii. Individual freedom was to be subordinated to the collective will of the masses, organized and determined for them by a leader or leaders.
iv. Modern technology also gave total states unprecedented police controls to enforce their wishes on their subjects.
a. Totalitarianism can be seen in Italy and Nazi Germany
b. Transcended traditional political labels.
c. Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany grew out of extreme rightist preoccupations with nationalism, and in the case of Germany, with racism.
d. Totalitarianism could and did exist in what
were perceived as extreme right-wing left-wing regimes.

B. Fascism in Italy

. a. Mussolini believes that he has power, (like humanists) to improve the people and himself by having complete control over Italy
b. Parallels Civic Humanism in this sense: Mussolini realized that anti-communism, anti-strike activity, and nationalist rhetoric combined with the use of brute force might help him obtain what he had been unable to achieve in his free elections.
c. Through education programs (a very humanistic approach), Mussolini taught the so-called benefits and advantages to Fascism, thus making almost 60% of his members students.
d. More specifically, Mussolini and the Fascists also attempted to mold the Italians into a single-minded community by pursing a Fascist educational policy and developing Fascist organizations.
e. The Establishment of youth groups, such as Young Fascists, helped to shape one type of person that was educated in only one style of government. This would give Mussolini the control he desired.
f. Humanism focuses on educating and developing individuals, through different reform movements, to a certain style of thinking. A tactic employed by many Totalitarian leaders.

C. Hitler and Nazi Germany

a. Hitler joins the obscure German Workers' Party and soon rises up in the ranks until he assumes total control of the party, which he renamed the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), or the Nazis.
I. Hitler worked hard to develop the party into a mass political movement with flags, badges, uniforms, its own newspaper, and its own police force or militia known as the SA.
b. Hitler employs tactics of Civic Humanism through his speeches
i. The advancement of Hitler's campaign is largely due to his charismatic dealings with the citizens, and specifically his rhetorical skills. Like Civic Humanism stresses, the importance of rhetorical training in the service of the state was critical to the progression of his state as a whole.
c. The Nazis, like the Italian Fascists run by Mussolini, employ violence to ensure the continuation of a Totalitarian regime
i. The SA was used to defend the party in meeting halls and to break up the meetings of other parties.
ii. (Parallel to civic humanism once again): Hitler's own oratorical skills were largely responsible for attracting an increasing number of followers.
d. Through reform programs that humanism often advocates, Hitler acted quickly on his Germany Empire.
i. The coordination of all institutions were under Nazi control
ii. The civil service was purged of Jews and democratic elements
iii. Concentration camps were established for opponents of the new regime
iv. The autonomy of the federal states was eliminated
v. trade unions were dissolved and swallowed by the gigantic Labor Front, and all political parties except the Nazis were abolished.
e. Humanism often allows for a certain group of people to think that they are doing the right thing - which they are teaching, in their opinion, the right ideologies and styles of government. This thought can result in superiority and reform programs that can cripple countries for years and years to come.
i. Nazi Germany was the scene of almost constant personal and institutional conflict, which resulted in administrative chaos.
ii. In matters such as foreign policy, education, and economies, parallel government and party beaurocracies competed with each other over spheres of influence.
iii. Incessant struggle characterized relationships within the party, within the state, and between party and state.

Cannaraozzi on Centralized Political Control

Compare the degree and means of centralized political control in 17th century France under Louis XIV and in Nazi Germany (1933-1945

FRANCE

Background:

Louis XIV (1643-1715) took power at age 23 the day after Cardinal Mazarin’s death. Right from the start he expressed his desire for an absolute monarchy.

1661-1715, “Age of Louis XIV” says Voltaire, historians today.

“Sun King” source of light for all people.

Government:

France had overlapping central authorities – Louis tried to change, reconstruct and centralize.

Versailles provided physical center for all policy-making and government proceedings

Louis removed high nobles from the royal council and replaced them with members of new aristocratic families, which he could fully control. Moved them right into Versailles in many cases.

Controlled all of the ministers and secretaries. Gave power over all foreign policy, war and peace negotiations and taxes.

Finances

Jean-Baptiste Colbert 1619-1683
Controller of general finances for Louis

Stuck to a strict mercantilism system. In reality all policy was geared to gaining more power for the king and more wealth for Versailles.

Burden of taxes fell on the already depressed peasants. As soon as the treasury was reestablished Louis depleted it on war costs.

Efficiency:

Local officials oftentimes bribed to carry out the will of Louis, corrupt system.
Frequently policies went unenforced due to lack of technology, distance.

Local officials who did not agree with laws or policies chose not to enforce them within their district.

Louis never achieved his dream of a true absolute monarchy.

NAZI GERMANY

Background:

Hitler and the Nazi Party take advantage of the weak post-war German government.

Take control and Hitler becomes chancellor (January 30, 1933), now has a clear path to put into practice all of his goals stated in Mein Kampf.

Diplomatic Revolution:

Between 1933-1936, achieved by Hitler and Nazi Germany

Germany fully rearmed, Hitler appealed to the people through speeches to right the wrongs they had been forced to endure as a result of Versailles.

As time went on organized chaos and economic pressures caused Hitler to contradict foreign policy goals set forth in Mein Kampf

A wave of legislative acts were passed starting in 1933 against the Jewish people.

Hitler attempted to control all of Germany and the rest of Europe. Not only the political situation but the people’s religious lives as well.

Hitler eliminated all rights of the people and all freedoms previously enjoyed by the German citizens.

The Nazi Party controlled all of the media coming in and out of the country and all news distributed within the country. This limited what people knew of what was really going on.

Hitler used terror and force to centralize and establish his government. Forced people to work for him and assist in his cause.

Pickin on International Orders

Compare the international orders (agreed upon rules and principles;
international organizations) established after the Thirty Years War
(1648), the Napoleonic Wars (1815), and World War I (1918).

After three of arguably the most traumatic wars in European history,
the Thirty Years War, the Napoleonic Wars and World War 1, the rulers of
the major nations in Europe sought a return to normalcy. In the pursuit of
this the major powers instituted various programs that were at odds with the
political landscape before the war.

Thirty Years War

• Peace of Westphalia-made it clear that religion and politics were now
separate worlds. The pope was completely ignored in all decisions.
• Political motives became the guiding forces in public affairs.
• Religion moved closer to becoming primarily a matter of conviction
and individual choice.
• Large departure from previous systems, where religion was often at
the core of political decisions.

Napoleonic Wars

• In response to nationalism and liberalism under Napoleon, at the
Congress of Vienna, under the leadership of Austrian Prince Metternich
instituted a number of changes.
• Balance of power-kept one power from dominating Europe. Explains the
lenient treatment of FRANCE
• Conservatism:
• Favored obedience to political obedience, organized religion crucial to
social order, hated revolutions, tradition was the best guide for
order,
• Concert of Europe- oganzn that grew out of the Quadruple Alliance.
Sought to maintain the status quo
• Principle of Legitimacy- major powers had the right to send in armies
into countries that were threatened with revolution.

WWI

• Reparations

• League of nations

• Guided by idealistic principles. Departure from realpolitk.

Mitchell on Colonial Nationalism

Compare nationalism in colonial areas after World War II to that in Italy and Germany in the 19th Century.

Thesis: While in 19th century Germany and Italy, nationalism was focused on unifying, in colonial areas after World War II, it focused on freeing itself from foreign control. In both cases, violent warfare was often resorted to in order to reach the goal of nationalism.

I. Aims of Nationalism

A. Colonies after World War II sought to gain independence from European states
1. Nationalism against Europe began after World War I
2. Accelerated in World War II
a. colonies knew that Allied war aims included self-determination
b. recognized that European states lacked the money and energy after the war to maintain colonies.
3. Exception of Zionists who tried to establish a nation rather than gain independence
B. Germany
1. Frankfurt assembly
a. Met to write a constitution for a united Germany
b. Dominated by educated middle-class professionals.
c. Disbanded within a year (597-598)
2. United in 1871, thanks to Bismark's efforts
C. Italy
1. Giuseppe Mazzini
a. Italian nationalist
b. Founder of Young Italy which intended to create a united Italian republic
c. Wrote The Duties of Man in which he urged Italians to work for an Italian nation. (598)
2. United due to Cavour, Garibaldi, and (indirectly), the Franco-Prussian War (618)

II. Means used to achieve aims

A. Colonies: peaceful means successful in many cases
1. Africa
a. political parties focusing on economic and political issues and reforms, seeking self-rule
b. in many cases, European states willingly let go of their colonies, such as in Ghana (1957, the first to gain independence), and 28 others by 1965.(811)
2. Middle East: Jordan, Syria, Lebanon become independent (811)
3. Asia:
a. Phillipines, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Indoniesia, Laos, Cambodia granted independence
b. elections planned, but never held for Vietnam(814)
B. Violence occurred everywhere
1. Africa
a. Mau Mau movement in Kenya used terrorism, causing Britain to promise eventual independence in 1959
b. Algerian nationalists created the National Liberation Front and stared using guerrilla warfare; gain independence 1962
c. in areas with large amounts of European settlers (i.e.South Africa) where European nationalist sentiments collided with African nationalism,violence broke out for more complicated reasons, i.e. apartheid (811)
2. Middle East: Palestine issue
a. The Truman administration created a Jewish state in Palestine in 1948; a UN resolution divided Palestine into Jewish and Arab states later that year
b. Palestinian-Isreali conflicts begin: Palestine Liberation Organization, guerrilla movement al-Fatah led by Yasir Arafat, Six-Day War (812- 813)
3. Asia
a. India had to be divided into Hindu (India) and Muslim(Pakistan) states.
b. over 1 million people killed as they crossed the new borders (814)
C. Italy: means achieved through war
1. Cavour oversaw annexation of northern Italian states in 1860
2. Garibaldi conquered southern Italian states, then yielded them to Cavour
3. Franco-Prussian War gives Venetia to Italy(617-618)
D. Germany: Bismark's three wars achieve unity
1. Danish War 1864
2 .Austro-Prussian War 1866
3.Franco-Prussian War 1870-71 (619-20)

Leino on Art

Compare the art of the Romantic period (early 19th century), the Age
of Realism (1850-71), and the pre-WWII period.

Throughout history art has directly mirrored social circumstances, a
trend clearly exhibited in the Romantic period, age of Realism, and in
the time between the two World Wars.

Romanticism

* Swept through Western Europe and the United States in the late 18th
and early 19th centuries.
* Term Romantic is derived from the romantic languages (French,
Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese) and from medieval tales of chivalry and
adventure written in those languages.
* Featured nostalgia for the past displayed in paintings of broken
sculptures and ruined buildings as a way to indicate passage of time.
* Romantics were interested in the mind as the site of mysterious,
unexplained and possibly dangerous phenomena. For the first time dreams
and nightmares were depicted as internal events rather than supernatural.
* There was a strong Christian strain in Romanticism associated with
the longing for a form of religious mysticism.
* Famous artists included Delacroix and Goya.

Realism

* The 19th century was an age of revolution and all the industrial
revolution and economic and social changes were depicted in art.
* Crafts were replaced by manufactured goods, and guilds were no
longer important to an artists training.
* The new social awareness was reflected in this art movement. The
term was coined in 1840 though the style itself appeared earlier.
* The primary concerns of the realist movement in art were direct
observation of society and nature, and political and social satire.
* Paintings often reflected the desire for a simple life but also the
mindless, repetitive character of physical labor born of poverty.
* Key artists were Courbet, Daumier, and Manet

Pre World War II

* This period was comprised of numerous movements including: Dada,
Surrealism, and Abstraction.
* Dada was an international artistic and literary movement that began
during WWI in neutral Switzerland. Dada was a sort of anti-art,
negating previous styles and challenged previous assumptions about art.
* Many members of the Dada movement became enamored by the surrealist
movement. The term surreal connotes a higher reality; a state of being
that is more real than mere appearance.
* Man Ray and Salvatore Dali were two of the biggest surrealists.
* Nearly all abstractionists passed through the surrealist phase and
were interested in the unconscious effects on reality.

Burnham on Technologies

Compare the impact of new technologies on society during the Renaissance (printing press), the age of European expansion (15-16th century), and in the modern era since 1970.

Thesis: Since the Renaissance up until the present, technologies like the printing press, compass and computer has grown increasingly sophisticated, stimulating the growth and complexity of European society.


The Impact of Printing (pgs 318-319)

The Renaissance witnessed the invention of printing, one of the most important technological innovations of Western civilization.

This new art had a profound impact on European intellectual life and thought.

Printing was not a new development, but what was different in the 15th century was multiple printing with movable metal type, developed between 1445 and 1450.

In the second half of the 15th century, printing presses spread rapidly, establishing themselves throughout Europe.

By 1500 almost forty thousand titles had been printed, about 50% religious, then Latin and Greek classics, medieval grammars, works on philosophy and popular romances.

This encouraged the development of scholarly research and the desire to attain knowledge. Printing facilitated cooperation among scholars and helped produce definitive texts. It also stimulated the development of an ever-growing public that was able to read.

Without the printing press, the new religious ideas of the Reformation would never have spread as rapidly as they did in the 16th C.

European Expansion (pgs 370-371)

Europeans had achieved a level of technology that enabled them to make a regular series of voyages beyond Europe.

One of the most important world maps available to Europeans at the end of the 15th C. was that of Ptolemy’s in his Geography. But this dramatically underestimated the circumference of the earth and the size of the oceans.

European ship makers had been able to construct rudders and sails that made it possible for ships to be mobile enough to sail against the wind and engage in naval warfare. They could also carry a substantial amount of goods over long distances.

Compasses and astrolobes enabled sailors to navigate above and below the equator with confidence.

Knowledge of the wind patterns in the Atlantic Ocean allowed sailors to learn how to tack out into the ocean.

These technological developments allowed explorers to overcome previous obstacles, and facilitated an age of rapid expansion and growth of European countries and empires.

The New World of Science and Technology (pgs 861-863)

The postwar alliance of science and technology led to an accelerated rate of change that became a fact of life in Western society.

One product of this alliance “the computer “ may yet prove to be the most revolutionary of all the technological inventions of the 20th C.

In 1971, the invention of the microprocessor opened the road for the development of the personal computer. It can store and produce information, and other tools and machines now depend for their functioning on computers.

Some people came to question the assumption that scientific knowledge gave human beings the ability to manipulate the environment for their benefit. Some technological advances had far-reaching side effects damaging to the environment, such as chemical fertilizers.

Many physicists after WWII described the universe as a complicated web of relations between “various parts of a unified whole. These speculations implied that the old Newtonian conception of the universe as a machine was an outdated tool for understanding the nature of the universe.